Publications
Preprints
- Laurence, P., & Bailey, D. (2026). What Executive Function Specialists Think About Executive Function Intervention and Training. OSF.
@unpublished{laurence2026executivf, title = {What Executive Function Specialists Think About Executive Function Intervention and Training}, author = {Laurence, Paulo and Bailey, Drew}, year = {2026}, publisher = {OSF}, link = {https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/pa4qg_v1} }Executive Function (EF) interventions are widely studied, yet evidence for durable and transferable benefits remains mixed. This exploratory study examined contemporary views among EF specialists regarding which interventions hold the greatest promise, which outcomes are most valid, and why far transfer is often weak or absent. Thirty-six EF specialists completed a brief online questionnaire combining ranking items and open-ended responses. Curriculum-based interventions were the most highly endorsed approach, followed by self-regulation strategy training and non-computerized EF training, although agreement on intervention priorities was low. Laboratory-based cognitive tasks were the most strongly endorsed outcome measure, but real-world behavioral observations were also strongly supported, indicating tension between experimental precision and ecological relevance. Researchers’ preferred criteria for evaluating success were associated with their research backgrounds and intervention preferences. Support for skill-focused approaches, particularly computerized EF training, was more closely aligned with preference for laboratory-based outcomes, whereas support for context-embedded approaches, such as curriculum-based programs, was more closely aligned with real-world behavioral measures. Qualitative analyses suggested that limited far transfer is commonly attributed to narrow and decontextualized training, weak alignment between training and outcomes, limited ecological validity, the contextual and cultural nature of EF, motivational and individual moderators, and methodological constraints. Overall, the findings suggest that disagreement in the field is not only about which interventions work, but also about what kind of evidence is taken to demonstrate that they work, pointing toward more context-embedded, developmentally sensitive, and mechanistically grounded intervention frameworks.
- Tafla, T., Laurence, P., Godoy, P., Bruckner, J., Hull, L., Mandy, W., & Shephard, E. (2026). Psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire. OSF.
@unpublished{tafla2026psychometric, title = {Psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire}, author = {Tafla, Tally and Laurence, Paulo and Godoy, Priscilla and Bruckner, Juliana and Hull, Laura and Mandy, William and Shephard, Elizabeth}, year = {2026}, publisher = {OSF}, link = {https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/3bpc5_v2} }To adapt to social expectations and gain peer acceptance, autistic individuals may engage in compensatory behaviors, known as camouflaging, which has been associated with mental health outcomes including depression and anxiety. Instruments that accurately measure camouflaging in autistic individuals are therefore important. The Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) is widely used in literature and shows good psychometric properties. However, most non-English-speaking countries such as Brazil, lack validated instruments to assess camouflaging behaviours. The present study reports the adaptation of the CAT-Q for Brazil and examines the psychometric properties of its Brazilian version. The translation and cultural adaptation had independent translations and evaluation by expert judges, including autistic adults. A total of 923 autistic and 470 non-autistic adults from across Brazil completed the CAT-Q-BR and the Autism Quotient–Short Version (AQ-10). Confirmatory factor analyses tested the original three-factor structure of the CAT-Q-BR; Convergent validity was examined through associations with autistic traits on the AQ-10 and self-reported anxiety and depression diagnoses and known-groups validity (gender differences) were also analyzed. Results supported the original structure, with acceptable model fit (CFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.076, SRMR = 0.066) and internal consistency for total score was good (α = 0.88). No significant association was found between CAT-Q-BR and the AQ-10. However, higher camouflaging scores were significantly associated with self-reported anxiety and depression. Gender-diverse participants reported higher camouflaging compared to cisgender men and women. Overall, findings provide initial evidence supporting the CAT-Q-BR as a reliable measure of camouflaging behaviors in Brazilian adults.
- Laurence, P., Placido, D., & Tafla, T. (2024). Neurodiversity-Driven Cognitive Development Framework: Integrating Strength-Based Approaches, Neurodiversity, and Contextual Understanding of Executive Functions. OSF.
@unpublished{laurence2024neurodiversity, title = {Neurodiversity-Driven Cognitive Development Framework: Integrating Strength-Based Approaches, Neurodiversity, and Contextual Understanding of Executive Functions}, author = {Laurence, Paulo and Placido, Diego and Tafla, Tally}, year = {2024}, publisher = {OSF}, link = {https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/6ys54} }This manuscript introduces an integrated framework connecting the strength-based approach, the neurodiversity approach, and the contextual understanding of executive functions. By challenging traditional deficit-oriented models, this framework advocates for recognizing the adaptive and context-dependent nature of cognitive abilities. We explore how these approaches collectively validate the diverse experiences of neurodivergent individuals and those from different cultural backgrounds, highlighting their unique strengths. Through an interdisciplinary lens, we emphasize the role of environmental and societal factors in shaping cognitive performance, advocating for more holistic and equitable assessments and promoting perspectives that acknowledge and value a range of skills when attempting to provide developmental support plans. This paradigm shift in psychology moves towards a diversity-oriented perspective, calling for systemic changes in how we assess, support, and value diverse cognitive profiles. We suggest that embracing this comprehensive approach can lead to more effective educational and clinical practices, fostering environments where all individuals can thrive.
Refereed Journal Articles
- Laurence, P. G. (2026). Executive Function Beyond Minority World Contexts: A Call for Culturally Relevant Assessments in Historically Overlooked Populations in Majority World Countries. Mind, Brain, and Education, 20(1), e70034.
@article{laurence2026executive, title = {Executive Function Beyond Minority World Contexts: A Call for Culturally Relevant Assessments in Historically Overlooked Populations in Majority World Countries}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro}, journal = {Mind, Brain, and Education}, volume = {20}, number = {1}, pages = {e70034}, year = {2026}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.70034}, publisher = {Wiley Online Library} }Executive function (EF) is crucial in cognitive development, yet current research remains focused on Minority world societies, overlooking the diverse populations in underrepresented countries. This manuscript addresses the cultural biases in widely used EF assessments and the need for culturally relevant tools from a Latin American perspective. By examining overlooked populations in the majority world countries, I argue that current EF evaluation methods fail to account for the cultural and socioeconomic contexts that shape cognitive performance. Through examples from Brazil and similar contexts, this paper underscores the urgency of adapting EF assessments to reflect human diversity. I propose specific recommendations, including cross‐cultural collaborations, mixed‐method approaches, engaging local communities in the design of assessments, and the development of context‐specific norms. By addressing these gaps, the field of EF research can advance toward a more inclusive and accurate understanding of cognitive development across diverse global populations.
- Rodrigues, M. de M., Hodgson, T., Laurence, P. G., & Macedo, E. C. (2026). Eye-gaze strategies reveal cognitive variability in a real-world executive function task. Neuropsychology.
@article{rodrigues2026eye, title = {Eye-gaze strategies reveal cognitive variability in a real-world executive function task.}, author = {Rodrigues, Matheus de Melo and Hodgson, Timothy and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Neuropsychology}, year = {2026}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0001081}, publisher = {American Psychological Association} }Objective: This study investigates individual differences in executive functioning during a real-world multitasking test, the hotel task, using eye-tracking data to identify distinct attentional strategies. Method: Sixty-four young adults (Mage = 22.1, SD = 2.38) completed the hotel task while eye movements were recorded. Participants also completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version, an antisaccade task, and the Wiener Matrizen-Test 2. Eye-tracking data were analyzed using k-means clustering to identify strategic profiles, which were compared via the Kruskal-Wallis test. Results: Self-reported working memory deficits correlated with poorer planning (ρ = -.31, p = .035). Clustering revealed three distinct gaze-based profiles. A less time-monitoring group performed worse than two more vigilant groups, attempting fewer tasks, F(2, 61) = 6.13, p = .004, and achieving lower planning scores, F(2, 61) = 5.93, p = .004. Conclusions: Eye-tracking identifies distinct strategic approaches to real-world multitasking that relate to performance but are not captured by traditional executive function tasks. Multitasking effectiveness appears supported by diverse strategies better characterized through integrated self-report, behavioral, and process-level data, offering a more nuanced understanding of executive function in ecologically valid settings.
- Laurence, P. G., Rodrigues, M. de M., Jana, T. A., & Macedo, E. C. (2026). What lab-based and self-report executive function measures predict in real-world task performance. Neuropsychology.
@article{laurence2026lab, title = {What lab-based and self-report executive function measures predict in real-world task performance.}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Rodrigues, Matheus de Melo and Jana, Tatiana Abr{\~a}o and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Neuropsychology}, year = {2026}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0001117}, publisher = {American Psychological Association} }Objective: This study examined whether cognitive laboratory tests or self-report inventories more effectively predict performance in a real-world executive function (EF) task. Method: Data were collected from 71 healthy university students who completed a battery of cognitive tasks, self-report inventories, and an ecologically valid Library task incorporating behavioral and eye-tracking measures. Results: Regression analyses revealed a dissociation in predictive validity between assessment methods. Lab-based EF measures showed a nonlinear association with task accuracy and uniquely predicted fixation behavior during instruction reading, indicating their relevance for goal-related and task-level performance. In contrast, self-report EF measures were more consistently associated with global eye-movement metrics, particularly fixation count and fixation rate, reflecting differences in attentional engagement and behavioral regulation. Across models, effect sizes were modest and neither assessment approach broadly predicted all outcomes. Conclusions: Overall, the findings support a complementary view of EF assessment, demonstrating that laboratory tasks and self-report inventories capture distinct aspects of executive functioning in ecologically valid contexts and highlighting the importance of aligning assessment methods with theoretically motivated real-world outcomes.
- Laurence, P. G., & Leopoldo, K. (2025). Substance abuse as a window into executive functioning: real-world insights for the second wave of executive function research. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, 3, 1741209.
@article{laurence2025substance, title = {Substance abuse as a window into executive functioning: real-world insights for the second wave of executive function research}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Leopoldo, Kae}, journal = {Frontiers in Developmental Psychology}, volume = {3}, pages = {1741209}, year = {2025}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fdpys.2025.1741209}, publisher = {Frontiers Media SA} } - Laurence, P. G., & Macedo, E. C. (2025). Mood affects attention in knowledge-free reasoning task, not scores. Learning and Motivation, 89, 102099.
@article{laurence2025mood, title = {Mood affects attention in knowledge-free reasoning task, not scores}, author = {Laurence, Paulo G and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Learning and Motivation}, volume = {89}, pages = {102099}, year = {2025}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2025.102099}, publisher = {Elsevier} }Recent research disputes the idea that acute stress affects academic performance when prior knowledge is controlled, challenging the interference hypothesis. However, the impact of mood on cognitive performance in knowledge-free tests, such as matrix reasoning tasks, remains unclear. This study examines the effects of positive and negative mood inductions on matrix reasoning performance, focusing on behavioral and eye movement measures. Experiment 1 confirmed effective mood induction, with the negative valence group showing increased stress. Experiment 2 found that while mood induction did not affect overall performance, it influenced attention allocation. Participants in the positive valence group displayed a less structured scanpath than those in the negative valence group. These results question the interference hypothesis, suggesting that stress does not impair performance in knowledge-free tasks and highlight the importance of attention allocation in educational assessment contexts.
- Laurence, P. G. (2025). Breaking the mould of executive function research. Nature Reviews Psychology, 4(5), 309–309.
@article{laurence2025breaking, title = {Breaking the mould of executive function research}, author = {Laurence, Paulo G}, journal = {Nature Reviews Psychology}, volume = {4}, number = {5}, pages = {309--309}, year = {2025}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-025-00437-x}, publisher = {Nature Publishing Group US New York} } - Cardoso, A. D., Morão, C. P., Laurence, P. G., & de Macedo, E. C. (2024). Brazilian patients with phenylketonuria: Neuropsychological profile, correlation with metabolic measurements, and the importance of treatment adherence. Psychology & Neuroscience, 17(1), 16.
@article{cardoso2024brazilian, title = {Brazilian patients with phenylketonuria: Neuropsychological profile, correlation with metabolic measurements, and the importance of treatment adherence.}, author = {Cardoso, Amanda Douat and Mor{\~a}o, Cindy P and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and de Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psychology \& Neuroscience}, volume = {17}, number = {1}, pages = {16}, year = {2024}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000310}, publisher = {Educational Publishing Foundation} }Objective: Phenylketonuria (PKU) is characterized by a deficiency in phenylalanine hydroxylase, a key enzyme responsible for the metabolism of phenylalanine (Phe). Neuropsychological alterations have been observed in individuals treated for PKU, including decreases in intelligence quotient (IQ) and processing speed impairments. However, studies demonstrating a correlation between phenylalanine variation and neuropsychological changes are scarce and present conflicting results. Additionally, treatment adherence is seen as one of the most important aspects of Phe control. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify the cognitive performance of Brazilian children with PKU by comparing it with normative data from intelligence-evaluating tests and examining the association with Phe levels throughout several stages of childhood development. Additionally, this work provides a perspective on treatment adherence and data from a Brazilian pediatric population. Method: Twenty participants aged 6–11 years of age who were treated for PKU or hyperphenylalaninemia participated in the study. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition was used to measure IQ, and metabolic measurements included all Phe measurements that were collected from birth until the project was conducted. Results: There was no reduction in Phe levels over this period of sampled time. In addition, negative Bayesian correlations were found between the Phe variation and processing speed, but not with total IQ. Conclusions: The investigation of Phe variation and its relationship with cognitive abilities and possible methods of care for patients with this condition is essential in improving our understanding of patient profiles and ensuring better care.
- Laurence, P. G., Bassetto, S. A., Bertolino, N. P., Barros, M. S. C. V. O., & Macedo, E. C. (2024). Differences in scanpath pattern and verbal working memory predicts efficient reading in the Cloze gap-filling test. Cognitive Processing, 25(3), 379–393.
@article{laurence2024differences, title = {Differences in scanpath pattern and verbal working memory predicts efficient reading in the Cloze gap-filling test}, author = {Laurence, Paulo G and Bassetto, Stella A and Bertolino, Natalia P and Barros, Mayara SCVO and Macedo, Elizeu C}, journal = {Cognitive Processing}, volume = {25}, number = {3}, pages = {379--393}, year = {2024}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-024-01189-x}, publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg Berlin/Heidelberg} }Different tests measure text comprehension, including the cloze gap-filling test, often used for language learning. Different studies hypothesized cognitive strategies in this type of test and their relationship with working memory and performance. However, no study investigated the cloze test, working memory, and possible cognitive strategies, while performing the test. Therefore, this study aimed to identify cognitive visual strategies in the cloze test by applying an unsupervised algorithm and to analyze the relationship between these strategies with working memory and performance in the cloze test. Our sample consisted of 51 university students, the largest sample in studies of cognitive strategies with cloze tests. Participants answered an 11-item cloze test in a computer with eye-tracking, a verbal working memory test, and a visuospatial working memory test. Our analysis of participants’ scanpath identified two main strategies: one with fewer toggles between text and word bank and fewer fixations than the other one, indicating the existence of a global strategy. Furthermore, a model predicting the efficiency of participants in the cloze test found that item complexity, using a global strategy, and higher scores of working memory were the most significant predictors. These results confirm the hypothesis of a global strategy being related to successfully achieving higher-order reading processes.
- Xavier, J. S., Orsati, F. T., Laurence, P. G., Barbosa, L. K., Gouveia, A. S., D’Antino, M. E. F., Lukasova, K., Macedo, E. C., & Schwartzman, J. S. (2024). Insights into Rett Syndrome girls’ receptive vocabulary through eye movements and parental perception. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 51, 1–8.
@article{xavier2024insights, title = {Insights into Rett Syndrome girls' receptive vocabulary through eye movements and parental perception}, author = {Xavier, Jucineide S and Orsati, Fernanda T and Laurence, Paulo G and Barbosa, Louren{\c{c}}o K and Gouveia, Andressa S and D'Antino, Maria El{\'o}isa F and Lukasova, Katerina and Macedo, Elizeu C and Schwartzman, Jos{\'e} Salom{\~a}o}, journal = {European Journal of Paediatric Neurology}, volume = {51}, pages = {1--8}, year = {2024}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2024.05.001}, publisher = {WB Saunders} }Objective: This study evaluated the receptive vocabulary of girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome (RS) by employing eye-tracking technology and examined how these objective measures compared with parents’ perceptions of their daughters’ language abilities. Method: Fourteen girls with RS and eleven typically developing peers participated. Instruments included the Kerr Scale, a parental questionnaire on communication skills, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - PPVT-4, and eye-tracking equipment. The PPVT-4’s initial 12 cards, each displaying four images, were presented on screen for 5 s for the child’s initial inspection. Subsequently, the same card was shown for 5 s with instructions to identify the picture matching the word, repeated three times in a randomized order. Results: Eye-tracking assessments revealed that girls with RS with less severe symptoms, performed below typically developing peers with aged 3-4 years. The number of eye fixations emerged as a reliable metric for assessing their performance. A positive correlation was found between parental reports of their daughters’ vocabulary knowledge and their ability to identify the correct stimulus, suggesting comprehension and active engagement in the testing process. Conclusion: This study presents a pioneering approach by combining parental perceptions with eye-tracking measures to assess receptive vocabulary in girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome. Despite showing lower performance levels compared to significantly younger peers, the findings suggest that these individuals use less effectively eye contact as a mode of communication.
- Laurence, P. G., de Melo Rodrigues, M., Tannus, M. C. B. L., Dekaney, E. M., & Macedo, E. C. (2024). Parental executive functions and motivations unveil variations in young children’s screen media use. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crı́tica, 37(1), 20.
@article{laurence2024parental, title = {Parental executive functions and motivations unveil variations in young children's screen media use}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and de Melo Rodrigues, Matheus and Tannus, Maria Carolina Brito Locatti and Dekaney, Elisa Macedo and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psicologia: Reflex{\~a}o e Cr{\'\i}tica}, volume = {37}, number = {1}, pages = {20}, year = {2024}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-024-00289-z}, publisher = {Springer International Publishing Cham} }Background: The increased screen media use among children aged 3 to 5, particularly in the post-COVID era, is concerning. Despite several organizations’ recommendation of a one-hour screen limit for young children, actual usage often exceeds this guideline. Objective: This study explored the influence of parental characteristics such as self-efficacy, motivation, socioeconomic status, and cognitive abilities on children’s screen time habits. Methods: Employing a feature selection model, 251 caregivers answered an online survey, presenting data from themselves and on-screen usage for 126 girls and 125 boys. We found that the caregiver’s executive functions, including cognitive flexibility, initiation, task monitoring, and material organization, significantly impact children’s screen time. Results: Our analysis highlighted the vital role of caregivers’ self-efficacy in moderating children’s screen usage. Family net income, children’s age and gender, and motivations related to children’s desires and behavioral control were also significant contributors to usage patterns. Conclusion: This study offers insights into interventions and effective parenting strategies in the digital age, highlighting the importance of addressing socio-demographic factors in understanding this complex issue.
- Laurence, P. G., & Macedo, E. C. (2023). Cognitive strategies in matrix-reasoning tasks: State of the art. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 30(1), 147–159.
@article{laurence2023cognitive, title = {Cognitive strategies in matrix-reasoning tasks: State of the art}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin \& Review}, volume = {30}, number = {1}, pages = {147--159}, year = {2023}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-022-02160-7}, publisher = {Springer} }Cognitive strategies in matrix-reasoning tasks have been investigated for the last decade and a half. Several steps were made since the first paper in the field, but the advances have been sparse and with little connection. Here we present a review of the state of the art in this subject. We introduce how this topic was born and how to measure these strategies, covering the diverse methods and measures that are presented in the literature to progress on this subject and the applications that were developed, as well as the knowledge that resulted from these applications. Furthermore, the future directions are discussed with the intention to engage new researchers in this topic, as well as to bring awareness to limitations that were found given the available scientific literature.
- Laurence, P. G., Jana, T. A., Bunge, S. A., & Macedo, E. C. (2023). Eye gaze patterns during reasoning provide insights regarding individual differences in underlying cognitive abilities. Journal of Intelligence, 11(4), 75.
@article{laurence2023eye, title = {Eye gaze patterns during reasoning provide insights regarding individual differences in underlying cognitive abilities}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Jana, Tatiana Abr{\~a}o and Bunge, Silvia A and Macedo, Elizeu C}, journal = {Journal of Intelligence}, volume = {11}, number = {4}, pages = {75}, year = {2023}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040075}, publisher = {MDPI} }Sequences of eye movements during performance of a reasoning task has provided insights into the strategies individuals use to solve that specific task; however, prior studies have not examined whether eye gaze metrics reflect cognitive abilities in a way that transcends a specific task. Thus, our study aimed to explore the relationship between eye movement sequences and other behavioral measures. Here, we present two studies that related different eye gaze metrics in a matrix reasoning task with performance on a different test of fluid reasoning and tests of planning, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, we related gaze metrics to self-reported executive functioning in daily life, as measured by BRIEF-A. To perform this, we classified the participants’ eye gaze in each item of the matrices test using an algorithm and then used LASSO regression models with the cognitive abilities as the dependent variable to select eye-tracking metrics to predict it. Overall, specific and distinct eye gaze metrics predicted 57% variance in the fluid reasoning scores; 17% variance in the planning scores; and 18% variance in the working memory scores. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that the selected eye-tracking metrics reflect cognitive abilities that transcend specific tasks.
- Gerotto, J. B., Rêgo, G. G., Laurence, P. G., & Macedo, E. C. (2023). Effect of suppressing or facilitating tasks during retention interval in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: A behavioral and pupillometry study. Psychology & Neuroscience, 16(1), 19.
@article{benvenutti2023effect, title = {Effect of suppressing or facilitating tasks during retention interval in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: A behavioral and pupillometry study.}, author = {Gerotto, J{\'u}lia Benvenutti and R{\^e}go, Gabriel Gaudencio and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psychology \& Neuroscience}, volume = {16}, number = {1}, pages = {19}, year = {2023}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000297}, publisher = {Educational Publishing Foundation} }Objective: One of the most employed methods in analyzing false memories is the Deese, Roediger, and McDermott Paradigm (DRM), which permits false memories detection within a controlled experiment. An exciting aspect not fully addressed in DRM is the effect of a suppression or facilitation task during retention interval on the recognition test. This study aimed to investigate the effect of suppression or facilitation tasks during retention intervals and its effects on behavior performance and pupil dilation response to old and new words during the recognition task. Method: We randomly assigned 132 university students into two groups: one submitted to a free recall task (facilitation condition), and the other submitted to a letter fluency task (suppression condition) during the retention interval. Results: We found that the facilitation group recognized more old items than the suppression group; however, they showed no difference in false memory rates. Pupillary diameter pattern indicated that pupils dilate more for old words (targets) while contracting for new items (distractors), confirming the pupil old/new effect. Conclusions: The suppression group had a worse performance in hit responses than the facilitation group; nevertheless, suppression task affected neither false memory rates nor pupillary dilation patterns. The letter fluency task played a role in suppressing memory, by affecting performance for correct recognition of a stimulus; however, pupillary variation patterns comparisons between facilitation and suppression conditions show no sign of a greater significant cognitive effort for the latter during the recognition task.
- Gascón, M. R. P., de Oliveira, G. S., Laurence, P. G., Gualqui, C. F., de Oliveira, A. C. P., Smid, J., Fonseca, L. A. M., Casseb, J., & Macedo, E. C. (2023). Neuropsychological profile of patients with infectious disease: characterization and comparison of patients with HIV, HTLV, and HCV. Journal of NeuroVirology, 29(1), 27–34.
@article{gascon2023neuropsychological, title = {Neuropsychological profile of patients with infectious disease: characterization and comparison of patients with HIV, HTLV, and HCV}, author = {Gasc{\'o}n, Maria Rita Polo and de Oliveira, Giovana S and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Gualqui, Carolina Fernandes and de Oliveira, Augusto Cesar Penalva and Smid, Jerusa and Fonseca, Luiz AM and Casseb, Jorge and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Journal of NeuroVirology}, volume = {29}, number = {1}, pages = {27--34}, year = {2023}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-022-01108-w}, publisher = {Springer International Publishing Cham} }Understanding the effect of the HIV, HTLV-1, and HCV viruses on cognitive aspects can help in the better characterization of dementia, as well as the best conducts to be suitable for rehabilitation. Thus, the present study aimed to characterize and compare the neuropsychological profile of 3 groups of patients with infectious diseases: HIV, HTLV, and HCV. The results of neuropsychological assessments and depression assessment of 325 people treated at a referral hospital for infectious diseases were analyzed, being 120 HIV carriers (74 (61.7%) men) with an average age of 47.5 years (SD = 10.3), 65 patients with HTLV-1 (16 (24.6%) men) with a mean age of 49.9 years (SD = 12.9), and 87 HCV patients (47 (54%) men) with a mean age of 55.5 years (SD = 11.2). In addition, 54 people (26 (48.1%) men) with negative serology who made up the control group were evaluated. The results of the statistical evaluation of the sociodemographic factors of the four groups (HIV, HTLV-1, HCV, and control) showed that in addition to age, schooling was a significant factor among them and may have a strong influence on the performance of cognitive tests. The HTLV-1 group had the lowest neurocognitive performance and also the highest rate of depressive symptoms.
- Silva Patrı́cia Botelho, Oliveira, D. G., Cardoso, A. D., Laurence, P. G., Boggio, P. S., & Macedo, E. C. (2022). Event-related potential and lexical decision task in dyslexic adults: Lexical and lateralization effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 852219.
@article{silva2022event, title = {Event-related potential and lexical decision task in dyslexic adults: Lexical and lateralization effects}, author = {Silva, Patr{\'\i}cia Botelho and Oliveira, Darlene Godoy and Cardoso, Amanda Douat and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Boggio, Paulo S{\'e}rgio and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Frontiers in Psychology}, volume = {13}, pages = {852219}, year = {2022}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.852219}, publisher = {Frontiers Media SA} }Developmental dyslexia is a specific learning disorder that presents cognitive and neurobiological impairments related to different patterns of brain activation throughout development, continuing in adulthood. Lexical decision tasks, together with electroencephalography (EEG) measures that have great temporal precision, allow the capture of cognitive processes during the task, and can assist in the understanding of altered brain activation processes in adult dyslexics. High-density EEG allows the use of temporal analyses through event-related potentials (ERPs). The aim of this study was to compare and measure the pattern of ERPs in adults with developmental dyslexia and good readers, and to characterize and compare reading patterns between groups. Twenty university adults diagnosed with developmental dyslexia and 23 healthy adult readers paired with dyslexics participated in the study. The groups were assessed in tests of intelligence, phonological awareness, reading, and writing, as well as through the lexical decision test (LDT). During LDT, ERPs were recorded using a 128-channel EEG device. The ERPs P100 occipital, N170 occipito-temporal, N400 centro-parietal, and LPC centro-parietal were analyzed. The results showed a different cognitive profile between the groups in the reading, phonological awareness, and writing tests but not in the intelligence test. In addition, the brain activation pattern of the ERPs was different between the groups in terms of hemispheric lateralization, with higher amplitude of N170 in the dyslexia group in the right hemisphere and opposite pattern in the control group and specificities in relation to the items of the LDT, as the N400 were more negative in the Dyslexia group for words, while in the control group, this ERP was more pronounced in the pseudowords. These results are important for understanding different brain patterns in developmental dyslexia and can better guide future interventions according to the changes found in the profile.
- Pinto, T. M., Laurence, P. G., Macedo, C. R., & Macedo, E. C. (2021). Resilience programs for children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 754115.
@article{pinto2021resilience, title = {Resilience programs for children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis}, author = {Pinto, Tatiana Matheus and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Macedo, Cristiane Rufino and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {12}, pages = {754115}, year = {2021}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.754115}, publisher = {Frontiers} }Resilience may be defined as the ability to recover and adapt to adverse situations. Given that resilience involves cognitive and behavioral aspects, it could be promoted based on strategies that favor them, especially during childhood and adolescence. As a result, several resilience-focused programs have been developed and studied. This systematic review of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) aimed to assess resilience-focused programs for children (<12 years old) and adolescents (12-22 years old) compared to active (treatment as usual, other program modalities, and educational curriculum at school) or inactive (waiting list, no treatment) control groups. We performed a systematic review of meta-analyses of RCTs. The following databases were searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, Embase, and PsycINFO. Two authors independently selected the studies, extracted the data, and assessed the studies’ risk of bias. Meta-analyses of random effects were conducted to calculate the standard mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of program effectiveness. Of the 17 RCTs that met the inclusion criteria, 13 provided sufficient data to assess the effectiveness of the programs after their implementation. Meta-analyses indicated overall effectiveness of the programs in promoting resilience (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI [0.15, 0.81], p = 0.0077). The subgroup analysis indicated effectiveness only among adolescents’ resilience (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI [0.08, 0.88], p = 0.02). The follow-up analysis also indicated evidence of continuation of results within a period of up to 6 months up (SMD = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.44, 0.69], p = 0.02). These results indicated the effectiveness of promoting resilience, especially in adolescents, and its continuation in follow-up analyses. These findings are promising in the field of resilience programs; however, further studies are necessary to analyze the different possible characteristics of programs and their results.
- Laurence, P. G., Busin, Y., Lima, H. S. da C., & Macedo, E. C. (2020). Predictors of problematic smartphone use among university students. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crı́tica, 33, 8.
@article{laurence2020predictors, title = {Predictors of problematic smartphone use among university students}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Busin, Yuri and Lima, Helena Scoz da Cunha and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psicologia: Reflex{\~a}o e Cr{\'\i}tica}, volume = {33}, pages = {8}, year = {2020}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-020-00147-8}, publisher = {SciELO Brasil} }Predictors of problematic smartphone use have been found mainly in studies on elementary and high school students. Few studies have focused on predictors related to social network and messaging apps or smartphone model. Thus, the objective of our study was to identify predictors of problematic smartphone use related to demographic characteristics, loneliness, social app use, and smartphone model among university students. This cross-sectional study involved 257 Brazilian university students who answered a smartphone addiction scale, a questionnaire about smartphone usage patterns, and the Brazilian version of the UCLA-R loneliness scale. Women, iPhone owners, and users of Instagram and Snapchat had significantly higher smartphone addiction scores. We found correlations between scores for the Brazilian version of smartphone addiction scale and the importance attributed to WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat, and the Brazilian version of the UCLA-R loneliness scale. Our hierarchical regression model predicted 32.2% of the scores of the Brazilian version of the smartphone addiction scale, with the greatest increase in predictive capability by the step that added smartphone social app importance, followed by the step that added loneliness. Adding the smartphone model produced the smallest increase in predictive capability. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
- Kucharskỳ, Š., Visser, I., Truțescu, G.-O., Laurence, P. G., Zaharieva, M., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2020). Cognitive strategies revealed by clustering eye movement transitions. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 13(1), 1.
@article{kucharsky2020cognitive, title = {Cognitive strategies revealed by clustering eye movement transitions}, author = {Kucharsk{\`y}, {\v{S}}imon and Visser, Ingmar and Truțescu, Gabriela-Olivia and Laurence, Paulo G and Zaharieva, Martina and Raijmakers, Maartje EJ}, journal = {Journal of Eye Movement Research}, volume = {13}, number = {1}, pages = {1}, year = {2020}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.1.1}, publisher = {Bern Open Publishing} }In cognitive tasks, solvers can adopt different strategies to process information which may lead to different response behavior. These strategies might elicit different eye movement patterns which can thus provide substantial information about the strategy a person uses. However, these strategies are usually hidden and need to be inferred from the data. After an overview of existing techniques which use eye movement data for the identification of latent cognitive strategies, we present a relatively easy to apply unsuper-vised method to cluster eye movement recordings to detect groups of different solution processes that are applied in solving the task. We test the method’s performance using simulations and demonstrate its use on two examples of empirical data. Our analyses are in line with presence of different solving strategies in a Mastermind game, and suggest new insights to strategic patterns in solving Progressive matrices tasks.
- da Silva, P. B., Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Laurence, P. G., Nico, M. Â. N., Simi, L. G. V., Tomás, R. C., & Macedo, E. C. (2020). Rapid automatized naming and explicit phonological processing in children with developmental dyslexia: a study with Portuguese-speaking children in Brazil. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 928.
@article{da2020rapid, title = {Rapid automatized naming and explicit phonological processing in children with developmental dyslexia: a study with Portuguese-speaking children in Brazil}, author = {da Silva, Patricia Botelho and Engel de Abreu, Pascale MJ and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Nico, Maria {\^A}ngela Nogueira and Simi, Luiz Gustavo Varej{\~a}o and Tom{\'a}s, Rute C and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {11}, pages = {928}, year = {2020}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00928}, publisher = {Frontiers Media SA} }Many studies have shown that children with reading difficulties present deficits in rapid automatized naming (RAN) and phonological awareness skills. The aim of this study was to examine RAN and explicit phonological processing in Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children with developmental dyslexia and to explore the ability of RAN to discriminate between children with and without dyslexia. Participants were 30 children with a clinical diagnosis of dyslexia established by the Brazilian Dyslexia Association and 30 children with typical development. Children were aged between 7 and 12, and groups were matched for chronological age and sex. They completed a battery of tests that are commonly used in Brazil for diagnosing dyslexia, consisting of the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children (WISC-IV) as well as tests of single word and non-word reading, RAN, and the profile of phonological abilities test. Results indicate that the cognitive profile of this group of children, with a clinical diagnosis of dyslexia, showed preserved skills in the four subscales of the WISC-IV (verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) and on the profile of phonological abilities test. Groups significantly differed on the reading tests (word and non-word) and RAN measures, with medium to large effect sizes for RAN. Classification and regression tree analysis revealed that RAN was a good predictor for dyslexia diagnosis, with an overall classification accuracy rate of 88.33%.
- Laurence, P. G., Serpa, A. O., Cunha Lima, H. S., Mavichian, H. O., & Macedo, E. C. (2020). Cross-cultural adaptation, factor structure, and evidence of reliability of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 42(6), 608–616.
@article{laurence2020cross, title = {Cross-cultural adaptation, factor structure, and evidence of reliability of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in Brazil}, author = {Laurence, Paulo G and Serpa, Alexandre O and Cunha Lima, Helena S and Mavichian, Helen O and Macedo, Elizeu C}, journal = {Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry}, volume = {42}, number = {6}, pages = {608--616}, year = {2020}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0778}, publisher = {Associa{\c{c}}{\~a}o Brasileira de Psiquiatria} }Objective: To translate, adapt, and examine the factor structure and internal consistency of a Brazilian Portuguese version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS-BR) among university students. Methods: The SAS was translated and adapted for use with Brazilian samples. The resulting instrument (SAS-BR) was then administered to 356 college students. Parallel analysis was used to explore the maximum number of dimensions that underlie the assessment, and data modeling was undertaken using exploratory multidimensional item response theory (E-MIRT). The reliability of the SAS-BR was tested by computing McDonald’s omega (ω) and Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficients. Results: Parallel analysis revealed a maximum of six factors. E-MIRT analysis revealed that a five-factor model was the best fit for the data. The five emergent factors were salience, positive anticipation, cyberspace-oriented relationship, preoccupation with smartphone, and physical symptoms; these factors together explained 50% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis, conducted using data from a second sample, replicated the five-factor structure. The internal consistency of the scale was found to be strong. Conclusion: The emergent factor structure of the SAS-BR was found to be similar to that of previous adaptations of this instrument for other Western countries.
- Pacheco, M. de J. T., Orsati, F. T., Laurence, P. G., da Cunha Gonçalves, H. M., da Silva Ribeiro, T. G., Pacheco, M. B., Vantini, M. A. B., da Silva, P. B., Tomás, R. C., de Abreu, P. E., & others. (2019). Low weight, socioeconomics and behavioral issues: examining a population in the Northeast of Brazil. Heliyon, 5(9), e02399.
@article{pacheco2019low, title = {Low weight, socioeconomics and behavioral issues: examining a population in the Northeast of Brazil}, author = {Pacheco, Maria de Jesus Torres and Orsati, Fernanda T and Laurence, Paulo Guirro and da Cunha Gon{\c{c}}alves, H{\'e}ron M{\'a}ximo and da Silva Ribeiro, Talyta Garcia and Pacheco, Marcone Barbosa and Vantini, Maria Augusta Braghin and da Silva, Patricia Botelho and Tom{\'a}s, Rute Cordeiro and de Abreu, Pascale Engel and others}, journal = {Heliyon}, volume = {5}, number = {9}, pages = {e02399}, year = {2019}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02399}, publisher = {Elsevier} }Background: Preterm and low weight children at birth are exposed to higher risks and rates of motor, cognitive, behavioral and emotional problems. Being born under low socioeconomic conditions adds even more complexity to these children. This report describes the emotional and behavioral issues of a group of children who were born in low income families and had low weigh at birth in the Northeast region of Brazil. Method: A total of 100 children (47 with adequate and 53 with low weigh) were assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist for behavioral and emotional problems, as well as with the Autism Behavior Checklist for autism symptoms. Results: Results show no difference between the two groups (low and adequate weight) in terms of behavior problems or autism characteristics, however, it shows elevated clinical prevalence’s of behavioral and emotional problems and more vulnerability for autism symptoms when compared to the general population. Data also showed the more years children spent in pre-school, the less internalizing problems they manifested. Conclusion: This study indicates that the impact of low socioeconomics environment is more prominent in the development of behavioral and emotional problems than low weight at birth, in addition it points to the benefits of pre-school years for the emotional and behavioral adjustment of children from low income and with low weight at birth.
- Laurence, P. G., Mecca, T. P., Serpa, A., Martin, R., & Macedo, E. C. (2018). Eye movements and cognitive strategy in a fluid intelligence test: Item type analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 380.
@article{laurence2018eye, title = {Eye movements and cognitive strategy in a fluid intelligence test: Item type analysis}, author = {Laurence, Paulo G and Mecca, Tatiana P and Serpa, Alexandre and Martin, Romain and Macedo, Elizeu C}, journal = {Frontiers in Psychology}, volume = {9}, pages = {380}, year = {2018}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00380}, publisher = {Frontiers Media SA} }Eye movements help to infer the cognitive strategy that a person uses in fluid intelligence tests. However, intelligence tests demand different relations/rules tokens to be solved, such as rule direction, which is the continuation, variation or overlay of geometric figures in the matrix of the intelligence test. The aim of this study was to understand whether eye movements could predict the outcome of an intelligence test and in the rule item groups. Furthermore, we sought to identify which measure is best for predicting intelligence test scores and to understand if the rule item groups use the same strategy. Accordingly, 34 adults completed a computerized intelligence test with an eye-tracking device. The toggling rate, that is, the number of toggles on each test item equalized by the item latency explained 45% of the variance of the test scores and a significant amount of the rule tokens item groups. The regression analyses also indicated toggling rate as the best measure for predicting the score and that all the rule tokens seem to respect the same strategy. No correlation or difference were found between baseline pupil size and fluid intelligence. Wiener Matrizen-Test 2 was demonstrated to be a good instrument for the purpose of this study. Finally, the implications of these findings for an understanding of cognition are discussed.
- Laurence, P. G., Pinto, T. M., Rosa, A. T. F., & Macedo, E. C. (2018). Can a lexical decision task predict efficiency in the judgment of ambiguous sentences? Psicologia: Reflexão e Crı́tica, 31, 13.
@article{laurence2018can, title = {Can a lexical decision task predict efficiency in the judgment of ambiguous sentences?}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Pinto, Tatiana Matheus and Rosa, Alexandre Tadeu Fa{\'e} and Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {Psicologia: Reflex{\~a}o e Cr{\'\i}tica}, volume = {31}, pages = {13}, year = {2018}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-018-0093-0}, publisher = {SciELO Brasil} }The lexicon plays a fundamental role in reading, but little is known about how it influences reading efficiency. Thus, this study seeks to identify which lexical factors in a lexical decision task are relevant in a semantic decision test. A total of 33 university students were recruited to perform a lexical decision task and a semantic decision task. The results revealed differences between the three types of words in the lexical decision task for all measures, but only in the regressive saccades for the semantic decision task. Ambiguous sentences triggered fewer regressions than sentences related to objects. The only lexical measure found to predict efficiency was average time on regular words, which predicted 24% of the efficiency. We discuss the implications of the use of a lexical decision task and the use of the inverse efficiency score as a semantic measure, and we discuss how the lexicon can predict semantic comprehension.
- Pacheco, M. de J. T., Gonçalves, H. M. da C., Ribeiro, T. G. da S., Gonçalves, T. H. N. M., Pacheco, M. B., Ribeiro, M. R. C., Ribeiro, L. B., Carvalho, A. P., Cabral, J. L., Artoni, L. G., & others. (2018). Low weight at birth and unfavorable socioeconomic background: effects on language and fluid intelligence. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 13(4), 368–373.
@article{pacheco2018low, title = {Low weight at birth and unfavorable socioeconomic background: effects on language and fluid intelligence}, author = {Pacheco, Maria de Jesus Torres and Gon{\c{c}}alves, H{\'e}ron M{\'a}ximo da Cunha and Ribeiro, Talyta Garcia da Silva and Gon{\c{c}}alves, T{\'a}rcia Heliny Nojoza Mendon{\c{c}}a and Pacheco, Marcone Barbosa and Ribeiro, Mariz{\'e}lia Rodrigues Costa and Ribeiro, Larah Bogea and Carvalho, Amanda Pereira and Cabral, J{\'u}lia Lima and Artoni, Leonardo Gon{\c{c}}alves and others}, journal = {Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies}, volume = {13}, number = {4}, pages = {368--373}, year = {2018}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2018.1524613}, publisher = {Taylor \& Francis} }Low birthweight (<2500 g), associated with low socioeconomic status, has a negative effect on cognition and development. This is especially true for fluid intelligence and language. This study aimed to examine and identify (1) fluid intelligence and language in low- and adequate-birthweight children in a low-income Brazilian neighborhood and (2) the environmental factors that could account for potential group differences. There were 100 children participated in the study, of whom 53 had low birthweight and 47 had adequate birthweight. The children completed a battery of tests for fluid cognition and language. Their socioeconomic background and home environment were explored through a caregiver questionnaire. The results indicated significant group differences in fluid intelligence but not in language. Environmental factors partially explained the results. The variables ‘years of preschool’ and ‘number of learning games/books’ predicted better test results. Furthermore, the children underperformed in naming speed but not in accuracy, and the low-birthweight children also underperformed in fluid intelligence. It is concluded that environmental factors affect both birthweight groups and may compromise child development.
- Laurence, P. G., Pinto, T. M., Rosa, A. T. F., & de Macedo, E. C. (2017). PERFIL DE ADULTOS BONS E MAUS LEITORES COM OU SEM TRAÇOS DE DISLEXIA DO DESENVOLVIMENTO: UM ESTUDO EXPLORATÓRIO DE MOVIMENTOS OCULARES. PRIMUS VITAM, 9, 1–8.
@article{laurence2017perfil, title = {PERFIL DE ADULTOS BONS E MAUS LEITORES COM OU SEM TRA{\c{C}}OS DE DISLEXIA DO DESENVOLVIMENTO: UM ESTUDO EXPLORAT{\'O}RIO DE MOVIMENTOS OCULARES}, author = {Laurence, Paulo Guirro and Pinto, Tatiana Matheus and Rosa, Alexandre Tadeu Fa{\'e} and de Macedo, Elizeu Coutinho}, journal = {PRIMUS VITAM}, volume = {9}, pages = {1--8}, year = {2017} }A competência em leitura é uma função importante para o ser humano e se relaciona com o crescimento da educação formal no último século. Durante a leitura de textos, os olhos se movem em um padrão típico e a análise desse padrão pode ajudar a compreender o processamento linguístico e semântico. Estudos com equipamentos que registram os movimentos oculares (i.e., eye tracking) tem possibilitado o estudo do processamento da leitura em bons leitores, bem como de pessoas com dislexia do desenvolvimento. O objetivo desse estudo foi descrever o perfil dos movimentos oculares de dois tipos de bons (com e sem traços de dislexia) e dois tipos de maus leitores (com e sem traço de dislexia) em uma prova de decisão semântica de ambiguidade. O critério para ser considerado bom leitor era que deveriam acertar acima de 85% das frases em um teste de decisão semântica. Já a identificação de traços de Dislexia foi feita por meio da Adult Dyslexia Chechlist (ADC). Os participantes liam frases que poderiam ser ambíguas (e.g.: O menino foi ao mar. Ele estava agitado) ou não ambíguas (e.g.: O menino foi ao mar. Ele estava feliz) e os movimentos oculares foram registrados com um equipamento de eye tracking SMI RED500. As medidas analisadas foram: Tempo médio de julgamento por estímulo em microssegundos, Média de Fixações por estímulo, Tempo médio de Fixação em microssegundos e Porcentagem de Sacadas Regressivas por estímulo em relação ao total de sacadas. Os resultados mostram que os dois grupos de maus leitores apresentam os maiores tempos para julgamento e maior número de fixações. Já os participantes dos dois grupos com traços de dislexia apresentam tempo maiores de fixação e menor porcentagem de sacadas regressivas. Os resultados sugerem a possibilidade de traçar perfil de bons e maus leitores a partir de provas de decisão semântica e análise dos movimentos oculares. A categoria dessa pesquisa é estudo experimental.